Review in a Hydroelectric Dam Water Falls 250 M and Then Spins a Turbine to Generate Electricity

Efficient hydroenergy conversion technologies, challenges, and policy implication

Pobitra Halder , ... Thou.M.K. Khan , in Advances in Clean Energy Technologies, 2021

seven.3.1.two.1 Francis turbine

Francis turbine embraces a radial flow runner in which the h2o strikes the runner blades radially and departs axially along its axis through a draft tube. The Francis turbine is a mixed period-type turbine in which the water passes through the curved guide vanes and creates a loftier curved rotational flow at the outlet. A typhoon tube is continued at the end of the turbine, and this draft tube aids to ameliorate the overall efficiency of the reaction turbine by pacifying the excess kinetic energy of the fluid. Modern Francis turbines showroom superlative efficiencies between lxxx% and 95%; however, they can exist further improved betwixt xc% and 95% when the turbine is well designed [26]. These turbines are generally suitable for a medium head with moderate belch. Yet, in some cases, Francis turbines can be used instead of impulse turbines for loftier head installations. The world's largest dam "The Three Gorges" uses 32 Francis turbines in its core producing approximately 22,500   MW of electricity with an operating caput of 61–113   m [27]. China is producing near 6500   MW from a hydropower plant located at Xiangjiaba [28]. The plant comprises of eight Francis turbines with head ranging from 82.5 to 113.half dozen   m.

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Hydro Free energy-Based Hydrogen Product

Ibrahim Dincer , Haris Ishaq , in Renewable Hydrogen Product, 2022

Francis

Francis turbine employs a runner through fixed buckets mostly nine or more. The water is introduced overhead the runner and all over information technology and then falls over initiating the spin. Other pregnant components are wicket gates, whorl cases, and typhoon tubes beside the runner. Francis turbine supports the inward radial water flow. In the advanced Francis turbines, the menstruation enters in radially but exits in a parallel management and is termed as mixed flow.

Francis turbines are among the most ordinarily used water turbines today. These turbines operate at the h2o head ranged from 40 to 600   one thousand and are primarily employed for electrical ability generation. The electric generator that is employed in such turbine types usually undergo power output ranging from a few kW to 800   MW; even so, installations of mini-hydro may be lower. The bore of the penstock ranges from 3 to 33   ft, and the turbine speed range lies betwixt 75 and thou   rpm. A wicket gate effectually the rotating runner turbine outside is installed to command the water catamenia rate over the turbine to achieve different rates of ability production. Such turbines are practically at all times straddled with the vertical shaft to separate water from the generator. This phenomenon facilitates maintenance and installation too.

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Hydropower Turbines

Paul Cakewalk , in Hydropower, 2018

Francis Turbine

The Francis turbine was developed past an American engineer James Bichens Francis effectually 1855. His design is extremely flexible and can be tailored to different head heights and menses rates. In operation the turbine must exist completely immersed.

One of the cardinal characteristics of the Francis turbine is the fact that water changes direction as it passes through the turbine. The flow enters the turbine in a radial direction, flowing towards its axis, but after striking and interacting with the turbine blades it exits forth the direction of that axis. It is for this reason that the Francis turbine is sometimes called a mixed-flow turbine. In club for it to operate efficiently, h2o must accomplish all blades every bit and flow is controlled past a casing which curls around the turbine in a spiral shape. This casing is called the volute (or sometimes but the screw) casing. The casing feed water through a set of valves and fixed blades into the moving blades of the turbine rotor. Top and side schematics of a Francis turbine are shown in Fig. four.4A and B.

Figure 4.4. (A) Top view of a Francis turbine. Source: Wikipedia; (B) Side view of a Francis turbine. Source: Wikipedia.

The blades of a Francis turbine rotor are carefully shaped to excerpt the maximum amount of free energy from the h2o flowing through it. Water should flow smoothly through the turbine for best efficiency. The force exerted by the water on the blades causes the turbine to spin and the rotation is converted into electricity by a generator. Blade shape is determined by the height of the water head available and the flow volume. In general each turbine is designed for the specific set of conditions experienced at a particular site.

When well designed, a Francis turbine tin can capture 90%–95% of the energy in the water. While much of the free energy capture is through reaction to the pressure of the water, there is as well an important element of impulse transferred to the turbine blades too in consequence of the kinetic energy of motion of the h2o. This move is generated by the screw casing and the gates that feed the water into the turbine. The ratio of the 2 for a well-designed Francis turbine is probably effectually i:ane.

The Francis design has been used with head heights of from 3 to 600   thou only it delivers its best operation between 100 and 300   m. Menstruum rate is ofttimes the limiting cistron for a given head. As the head height rises it increases the pressure at the base of the h2o column, and the size of the turbine must fall for a given flow, making fabrication more difficult. High-head Francis applications therefore require a large flow to be successful. Conversely for low-caput applications the flow must be depression or the turbine will become excessively large. It is for this reason that while the Francis turbine is the most versatile, different designs are by and large used for both very high and very low heads.

Francis turbines are also the heavyweights of the turbine globe. The largest, found at both the Itaipu ability plant on the Brazil–Paraguay edge and at the Iii Gorges Dam in China, take generating capacities of 700  MW each.

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Hydropower

Paul Breeze , in Power Generation Technologies (Third Edition), 2019

Francis Turbine

The Francis turbine was developed by James Bichens Francis effectually 1855. Its key characteristic is the fact that water changes direction as it passes through the turbine. The flow enters the turbine in a radial direction, flowing towards its centrality, but later hitting and interacting with the turbine blades information technology exits along the direction of that centrality. Information technology is for this reason that the Francis turbine is sometimes called a mixed-flow turbine. In order for information technology to operate efficiently, water must achieve all blades equally and menses is controlled by a prepare of valves or gates which curl around the turbine itself in a screw shape. This tin can be seen in the cross section in Figure 8.viii.

Figure eight.8. Cross department of a Francis turbine.

The blades of a Francis turbine are carefully shaped to extract the maximum amount of energy from the water flowing through it. Water should menses smoothly through the turbine for all-time efficiency. The force exerted past the h2o on the blades causes the turbine to spin and the rotation is converted into electricity by a generator. Blade shape is determined by the top of the water caput available and the flow volume. Each turbine is designed for a specific gear up of conditions experienced at a particular site. When well designed, a Francis turbine can capture ninety%–95% of the free energy in the water.

The Francis design has been used with caput heights of from three to 600   m but it delivers its best performance between 100 and 300   m. Catamenia rate is often the limiting factor for a given head. Equally the head height rises, the size of the turbine must fall, making fabrication more difficult. High head Francis applications therefore require a large flow to exist successful. Conversely, for low-head applications the flow must exist low or the turbine will go excessively big. Information technology is for this reason that while the Francis turbine is the most versatile, alternative designs are generally used for both very high and very low heads.

Francis turbines are also the heavyweights of the turbine earth. The largest, constitute at both the Itaipu power plant on the Brazil–Paraguay border and at the Three Gorges dam in China, have generating capacities of 700  MW each.

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Energy Recovery Devices in Membrane Desalination Processes

Eric Kadaj , Rolando Bosleman , in Renewable Free energy Powered Desalination Handbook, 2018

11.i.1.1 Francis Turbine/Reverse Running Pump

The Francis turbine or contrary running pump was the earliest used ERD for desalination (Fig. 11.2). The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid changes pressure as it moves through the turbine, giving upwardly its free energy. The turbine is located betwixt the high-pressure level water source and the low-pressure h2o exit, usually at the base of a dam.

Fig. xi.2. Francis turbine with generator

(From the English Wikipedia. Taken By thirteen:14, 28 Mär 2004 Stahlkocher.)

The inlet is screw shaped. Guide vanes direct the h2o tangentially to the turbine bike, known as a runner. This radial flow acts on the runner's vanes, causing the runner to spin. The guide vanes (or wicket gate) may be adaptable to allow efficient turbine operation for a range of water flow conditions.

As the h2o moves through the runner its spinning radius decreases, farther acting on the runner. For an illustration, imagine swinging a brawl on a string around in a circle; if the string is pulled brusk, the ball spins faster due to the conservation of angular momentum. This holding, in addition to the h2o pressure, helps Francis and other inward-flow turbines harness water energy efficiently.

At the exit, water acts on cup-shaped runner features, leaving with no swirl and very piddling kinetic or potential energy. The turbine'southward exit tube is shaped to help decelerate the water menstruum and recover the force per unit area.

In summary, the h2o flow inbound a turbine impeller where the hydraulic free energy of the fluid is converted into mechanical energy via a shaft which is and so connected to a generator. The generator so converts that mechanical energy into electrical energy which can so exist used to power other equipment in the establish.

The disadvantage of the Francis turbine is its low elevation efficiency and inability to operate optimally when atmospheric condition vary. Since desalination plants are subjected to varying conditions due to changes in the salinity and temperature, Francis turbines were oft operated off of their original design which decreases performance. The bulk of these Francis Turbines were replaced by Pelton wheels.

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Hydropower technology

Nitai Pal , Faizan A. Khan , in Sustainable Fuel Technologies Handbook, 2021

four.ix.ten.5 Performance activity

The Francis turbine is a sort of response turbine, a classification of turbines wherein working liquid goes into the turbine nether enormous tension and energy is extricated by the turbine blades from the working liquid. A part of the fluid vitality is transferred due to a change in pressure, while the remaining energy is extracted by the volute turbine casing. The h2o leaving the outlet at a depression speed and low whirl has only modest kinetic and potential vitality left. The outlet tube of the turbine is molded to decelerate the h2o stream and regain the pressure.

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Comparison of Liutex and other vortex identification methods

Chaoqun Liu , ... Yisheng Gao , in Liutex and its Applications in Turbulence Research, 2021

eleven.4.1 Short review

The Francis turbine operating far from the all-time efficiency government is characterized by aberrant flow in the draft tube and the advent of a spiral vortex or columnar vortex, which is called the vortex rope. Arpe et al. (2009) establish out the dominant frequency of a vortex rope lies between 0.2 and 0.4 times of the runner frequency. Understanding of the periodical precession of this vortex, as well every bit investigation of the vortex rope structure in the typhoon tube, is necessary for preventing structural vibrations and increasing the number of performance hours at off-design conditions. Nevertheless, detailed characteristics of the vortex structures are shown to exist challenging to authentic visualizations.

Several attempts take been fabricated to capture the vortex structures in the draft tube of the Francis turbine. Gavrilov et al. (2017) focused on detecting and analyzing the vortical structures and evolution of vortex core at deep partial-load points (flow charge per unit of only 35%), using 2 URANS models and a hybrid LES/RANS method, where the vortex structures are visualized by λ ₂ (Jeong et al., 1995) and Q criterions (Hunt et al., 1988). However, their results are strongly influenced past option of threshold values, which volition indicate dissimilar vortex structures past different threshold selections. In detail, using the λ ₂ or Q criterion, there exist nonphysical vortex structures, and "vortex breakdown" could be observed for some large thresholds while no "vortex breakdown" tin can be institute for some smaller thresholds (Dong et al., 2019b). These will easily pb to misunderstandings on the physics of the turbulent menses. Liu et al. (2016) proposed the Omega method (Ω method), which is not sensitive to the threshold option and can successfully capture both strong and weak vortices simultaneously. All the same, the Ω method has some limitations like the introduction of an uncertain parameter of epsilon (ε) (Dong et al., 2018c).

The vortex structures are identified by several methods aiming at extracting a line feature called the vortex cadre line that is adult. For case, the vorticity is a traditional and common indicator for the presence of vortices. However, this technique all the same has some limitations including: (i) sensitive to other nonlocal vector features; (ii) non producing contiguous lines (Haimes, 2000). Recently, a new vector called "Liutex" is introduced by Liu et al. (2018a, 2019) to describe the local rigid rotation of fluids. This method, which is not but Liutex iso-surfaces only also unlike strength along with the Liutex cores, can be used to analyze the procedure of the vortex generation and evolution (Gao et al., 2019b; Xu et al., 2019a). The Liutex method has not even so been applied to investigate the circuitous fluid flows such as cavitation flow in the Francis turbine in literature. Hence, to reduce the difficulty for more accurate visualization of vortex structures, a well-defined method such as the Liutex method is necessary to be applied for the vortex identification in the Francis turbine.

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Hydro Power

L. Suo , ... H. Xie , in Comprehensive Renewable Energy, 2012

6.07.2.two.1(five) Hydroelectric turbine generation unit of measurement

The 14 Francis turbine generator units (as shown in Figure fourteen ), each of 700   MW, in the correct bank constitute are purchased through international bidding, amongst which 8 turbines are supplied past ALSTOM HYDRO, with the hydraulic pattern and modeling examination fulfilled by KE of Norway, and the corresponding generators are supplied by ALSTOM ABB. The other half-dozen units are supplied past a joint venture consisting of VOITH, GE Canada, and SIEMENS, whose Chinese partners are Harbin Electric Machinery Company Limited (hereinafter as HEC) and Dongfang Electric Visitor Limited (hereinafter as December). Due to severe competition and the extreme importance of the turbine generation units of the TGP, each supplier pays great attention to the units and, in view of the characteristics of the TGHP, selects special hydraulic and structural optimization design for turbines and generators.

Figure xiv. Hoisting and installing a runner in a power found.

The main parameters of turbines and generators in the left banking company power institute are shown in Tables ane and 2 , respectively.

Table i. Main features of turbines in the left bank ability plant

Particular		Unit of measurement	VGS	ALSTOM
Type			Francis, vertical, and single runner	Francis, vertical, and unmarried runner
Number		Set	6	8
Nominal diameter (outlet diameter) of runner		mm	9551.0	9800.0
Head	Maximum head	m	113.0	113.0
	Rated head	m	lxxx.6	eighty.6
	Minimum head	m	61.0 in the initial stage71.0 in the final stage	61.0 in the initial stage71.0 in the final phase
Rated output		MW	710	710
Rated discharge		one thousand3  south−1	995.6	991.8
Maximum output under continuous operation		MW	767.0	767.0
Maximum output corresponding generator coefficient cos   Φ   =   1		MW	852	852
Rated rotating speed		rpm	75	75
Specific speed		m   kW	261.seven	261.7
Specific speed coefficient			2349	2349
Draft head		one thousand	−5	−v
Installation summit		g	57.0	57.0
Direction of rotation			Clockwise, overlook	Clockwise, overlook

Tabular array two. Primary features of generators in the left bank power found

Item	Unit	ABB	VGS
Type		Vertical, semi-umbrella	Vertical, semi-umbrella
Cooling		Semi-h2o cooling	Semi-water cooling
Rated capacity/rated power	MVA/MW	777.viii/700	777.8/700
Maximum capacity/maximum power	MVA/MW	840/756	840/756
Rated voltage	kV	20	20
Rated power gene		0.ix	0.9
Power factor under maximum capacity		0.9	0.9
Rated frequency	Hz	50	l
Rated speed	rpm	75	75
Delinquent speed	rpm	150	150
GDtwo	t   ktwo	450   000	450   000
Rated efficiency	%	98.77	98.75

Through international bidding, each of HEC, December, and ALSTOM supplies 4 sets of turbine generator units for the right bank power constitute, which is a remarkable course of Chinese manufactory starting to blueprint and industry gigantic 700   MW turbine generator units.

The main parameters of turbines and generators in the right bank power plant are as shown in Tabular array 3 .

Table iii. Main Features of Turbine and Generator of the correct banking company power found

	Item	Unit	Nos. 15–18 supplied by December	Nos. 19–22 supplied past ALSTOM	Nos. 23–26 supplied by HEC
Turbine	Type		Francis	Francis	Francis
	Number	Gear up	4	4	iv
	Maximum and rated head	thousand	113.0/85.0	113.0/85.0	113.0/85.0
	Minimum caput	chiliad	61.0 in the initial stage 71.0 in the terminal stage	61.0 in the initial stage 71.0 in the final phase	61.0 in the initial phase 71.0 in the terminal phase
	Rater discharge	one thousand3 s−one	966	966	966
	Rated output	MW	710	710	710
	Maximum output under continuous operation	MW	767.0	767.0	767.0
	Maximum output respective generator coefficient cosΦ   =   one	MW	852	852	852
	Rated rotating speed	rpm	75	71.4	75
	Specific speed	M kW	244.9	233.one	244.9
	Specific speed coefficient		2258	2149	2258
	Draft head	1000	–five	–5	–5
	Installation elevation	thousand	57.0	57.0	57.0
	Direction of rotation		Clockwise, overlook	Clockwise, overlook	Clockwise, overlook
Generator	Blazon		Vertical, semi-umbrella	Vertical, semi-umbrella	Vertical, semi-umbrella
	Cooling		Semi-water cooling	Semi-h2o cooling	Air cooling
	Rated capacity/Rated ability	MVA	777.8/700	777.8/700	777.8/700
	Maximum chapters/Maximum power	MW	840/756	840/756	840/756
	Rated voltage	kV	twenty	xx	20
	Rated power factor		0.ix	0.9	0.9
	Rated frequency	Hz	50	fifty	l
	Rated speed	rpm	75	71.4	75
	Delinquent speed	rpm	150	142.viii	150
	GD2	t m2	450   000	450   000	450   000
	Rated efficiency	%	98.75	98.83	98.73

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Hydraulic Turbines

S.L. Dixon B. Eng., Ph.D. , C.A. Hall Ph.D. , in Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery (Sixth Edition), 2010

v. A Francis turbine operates at its maximum efficiency betoken at η ₀ = 0.94, corresponding to a power specific speed of 0.9 rad. The constructive head beyond the turbine is 160 g and the speed required for electrical generation is 750 rev/min. The runner tip speed is 0.7 times the spouting velocity, the absolute flow angle at runner entry is 72° from the radial direction, and the absolute flow at runner exit is without swirl. Bold at that place are no losses in the guide vanes and the mechanical efficiency is 100%, determine

(i)

the turbine power and the volume catamenia charge per unit;

(ii)

the runner diameter;

(iii)

the magnitude of the tangential component of the absolute velocity at runner inlet;

(iv)

the axial length of the runner vanes at inlet.

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Energy Fundamentals

Martin Agelin-Chaab , in Comprehensive Energy Systems, 2018

1.eleven.i.4.1.2.3 Hydraulic efficiency

${\eta }_{\mathrm{H}}=\mathrm{hydraulic}\mathrm{efficiency}=\frac{\mathrm{Ability}\mathrm{adult}\mathrm{by}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{runner}}{\mathrm{Power}\mathrm{available}\mathrm{at}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{turbine}\mathrm{inlet}}$

(27) $\mathrm{Simplifying}\text{gives}:{\eta }_{\mathrm{H}}=\frac{\left({\mathrm{Five}}_{\mathrm{west}\mathrm{ane}}{u}_{\mathrm{ane}}\pm V_{\mathrm{w}2}{u}_{\mathrm{two}}\right)}{gH}$

Example 3

A Francis turbine has a wheel diameter of 1.1 m at the entrance and 0.55 yard at the get out. The working caput of this turbine is 28 g. The entrance vane and guide angles are 88 and 17 degrees, respectively; and the working fluid leaves the vanes with no tangential velocity. If the velocity of menstruation in the runner is constant and result of typhoon tube and losses in the guide and runner passages are neglected, calculate the leave vane bending and the speed of the bike.

Solution:

Information:

H=32m, D _one=i.1m, D ₂=0.55m, β ₁=88   degrees, α ₁=17   degrees, V _w2=0, V _f1=V _f2

Vane angle at entry

β_one=88   degrees, u ₁=V _w1, 5 _r1=Five _f1

Radial dischange

α₂=88   degrees, 5 _W2=0, V ₂=Five _f2

  tanα₁=V _f1/u _ane;   tan17=Five _f1/ u _ane; u1=3.27V _f1

Note that

$H-\frac{V_2^2}{2\mathrm{thousand}}=\frac{\left({\mathrm{Five}}_{\mathrm{w}1}{u}_{\mathrm{i}}\pm 5_{\mathrm{due\; west}\mathrm{ii}}{u}_2\right)}{g}=\frac{V_{\mathrm{westward}1}{u}_{\mathrm{one}}}{g}=\frac{u_{\mathrm{i}}^{\mathrm{ii}}}{g}$

or

$28-\frac{V_{\mathrm{f}1}^{\mathrm{two}}}{\mathrm{two}\times 9.81}=\frac{{\left(3.27V_{\mathrm{f}\mathrm{one}}\right)}^{\mathrm{ii}}}{9.81}$

$V_{\mathrm{f1}}=4.95\mathrm{m}/\mathrm{southward}$

one.

Speed of the bike (N):

$u_{\mathrm{ane}}=\mathrm{three.27}{5}_{\mathrm{f}\mathrm{one}}=3.27\times 4.95=16.186\mathrm{m}/\mathrm{s}$

$u_1=16.186=\frac{\pi D_1\mathrm{Northward}}{60}=\frac{\pi \times 1.1\times N}{60}$

$\mathrm{Northward}=281.03\mathrm{rpm}$

$u_2=\frac{\pi D_2\mathrm{Due\; north}}{\mathrm{lx}}=\frac{\pi \times 0.55\times 281.03}{60}=\mathrm{viii.09}\mathrm{m}/\mathrm{s}$

two.

Vane angle at the exit (β₂):

$\tan {\beta }_2=\frac{V_{\mathrm{f}\mathrm{ii}}}{u_2}=\frac{\mathrm{iv.95}}{\mathrm{eight.09}}=0.61$

${\beta }_{\mathrm{two}}=31.5$

Case iv

A reaction turbine of the inward menstruation type has a speed of 235 rpm and a constant flow velocity of 3.five m/southward. If the inlet diameter and width are 1.15 k and 0.2 m, respectively, with radial discharge at inlet and outlet, determine the following: (one) the work done per weight; (2) the power adult past the turbine; and (three) the hydraulic efficiency.

Solution:

Data:

Speed

Due north=235 rpm (250)

Catamenia velocity

V _f1=5 _f2=3.5 m/southward (4)

Inlet diameter

D ₁=one.fifteen yard (1.two)

Width at inlet

B ₁=0.2 m

Radial discharge

α₂=90 degrees, V _w2=0, 5 _f2=V ₂

Radial inlet

β_one=90 degrees, V _w1=u _one

$u_1=\frac{\pi D_{\mathrm{ane}}\mathrm{Due\; north}}{\mathrm{sixty}}=\frac{\pi \times \mathrm{i.15}\times 235}{60}=\mathrm{14.fifteen}\mathrm{thou}/\mathrm{s}$

i.

Piece of work done per weight (W.D./Weight):

$P=\rho Q\left(V_{\mathrm{westward}1}{u}_1\pm {\mathrm{Five}}_{\mathrm{west}2}{u}_{\mathrm{two}}\right)$

$\frac{\mathrm{West}\mathrm{.D}.}{\mathrm{Weight}}=\frac{\rho Q{V}_{\mathrm{west}1}{u}_1}{\rho Q\mathrm{chiliad}}\left(5_{\mathrm{westward}2}=0\mathrm{for}\mathrm{radial}\mathrm{discharge}\right)=\frac{5_{\mathrm{w}\mathrm{one}}{u}_{\mathrm{ane}}}{\mathrm{grand}}$

$\frac{\mathrm{Due\; west}\mathrm{.D}.}{\mathrm{Weight}}=\frac{\mathrm{14.fifteen}\times \mathrm{fourteen.xv}}{9.81}=\mathrm{xx.41}\mathrm{N}\frac{\mathrm{k}}{\mathrm{Due\; north}}(5_{\mathrm{w}\mathrm{i}}=u_1,\mathrm{radial}\mathrm{inlet})$

2.

Power developed (P):

$Q=\pi D_1{B}_1{V}_{\mathrm{f}1}=\pi \times \mathrm{one.xv}\times 0.2\times 3.5=2.53{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{three}}/\mathrm{due\; south}$

$P=\rho Q{V}_{\mathrm{due\; west}\mathrm{ane}}{u}_{\mathrm{ane}}=1000\times 2.53\times 14.15\times 14.15=506.56\mathrm{kW}$

iii.

Hydraulic efficiency (η _H): First, use Bernoulli's equation to find the head, H:

$H=\frac{V_{\mathrm{w}1}{u}_1}{\mathrm{1000}}+\frac{5_2^2}{2g}=20.41+\frac{{\mathrm{three.5}}^{\mathrm{two}}}{2\times \mathrm{ix.81}}=21.03\mathrm{m}$

${\eta }_{\mathrm{H}}=\frac{5_{\mathrm{w}1}{u}_1}{gH}=\frac{\mathrm{fourteen.fifteen}\times \mathrm{14.xv}}{9.81\times 21.03}=0.970=97\%$

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